Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights

The argument refering the economic deductions of rational belongings rights ( IPRs ) has gained considerable attending over the past two decennaries in the context of the World Trade Organization ‘s ( WTO ) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) . TRIPS aims to contract the spreads in the manner that IPRs are protected around the universe, and to convey them under common international regulations. Developing states are under increasing force per unit area to beef up their national rational belongings ( IP ) regimes, in order to harmonize them with those of developed states. Developing states have been for long clip under demand by developed states for the execution of rational belongings rights. The chief concern by the developed states is to protect the inventions in the developing states from the illegal imitation and copying. The underdeveloped states are divided over the argument on the base of their economic conditions, foreign direct investing and technological edification. The concern for the development states is economic deductions for the execution of such rational belongings governments in their several states. Intellectual Property Rights are one of the sensitive countries for developing states whose proper execution with appropriate timing could raise the socio-economical conditions of the developing states. It is practically inevitable for the developing states to acquire benefit from the strong rational belongings rights owned by the discoverers in the developed states. From the planetary public assistance position, it was argued that holding the weaker rational belongings in the underdeveloped states does non needfully means that discoverers in the developed states would lose, nevertheless the comparative fiscal benefits associated with such innovations could be less.Chapter 1IntroductionOverviewIntellectual Property Rights ( IPR ) are sole rights over creative activities of the head, both artistic and commercial and the corresponding Fieldss of jurisprudence. These include innovations, literary and artistic plants, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commercialism. The success of a merchandise today relies much on creativeness and invention. Awareness of IPRs is important to guarantee originative thoughts and inventions are good protected from commercial development. There remains considerable contention on the economic impact of TRIPS ( interpreted as the tightening of IPRs ) in developing states. This study focuses on the long-run structural issues refering the impact of TRIPS on industrial and engineering development in hapless states. Systems to regulate rational belongings and advance societal public assistance through invention and cognition creative activity are non new. Despite their being through the past decennaries and centuries, rational belongings was comparatively absent from the public argument. The relationship between IPRs and development is so rather complex from a theoretical point of position. On one manus, there are theoretical statements proposing that stronger IPRs can hold positive effects on development. On the other manus, there are theoretical statements against stronger IPRs in developing states. As such, this study reviews the empirical grounds about the relationship between the strength of IPRs and each of the following countries in developing states that is foreign direct investing ( FDI ) , trade, invention and traditional cognition and familial resources. It is found that the relationship is viewed better from an surrogate position, where the broader degrees of economic and societal development have a strong consequence on how IPRs affect developing states. In this manner, the study helps to shift the initial inquiry on the functions of IPRs in developing states and to clear up its related grounds base.Chapter 2Intellectual Property Rights2.1 OverviewIntellectual Property Rights ( IPRs ) are the cardinal drive forces behind economic growing. Inventions, particular procedures, computing machine plans, typical names or Markss, musical and other media work, designs and trade secrets may all be Intellectual Property right protected. Such IPRs must be decently identified, car efully evaluated and skilfully protected if they are to carry through their commercial potency. There are two classs of IPR viz. Industrial Property and Copyrights.2.2 Industrial PropertyIndustrial Property includes innovations, hallmarks, industrial design, and geographical indicant of beginning. Industrial belongings are rights due to industry thoughts for others non to copy or steal thoughts. The three types of Industrial Property are patent, hallmarks, industrial design right and trade secrets.2.2.1 PatentsThe sole right of the discoverer to forestall others from doing, utilizing and selling a patented innovation for a fixed period of clip in return for the discoverer ‘s unwraping the inside informations of the innovation to the populace. Peoples could non copy the innovation under this regulation and is usage at industrial or commercial intents.2.2.2 Trade secretsTrade secret refers to any information that may be used in the operation of a concern and that is sufficiently valuable to afford an existent or possible economic advantage. Some companies make their cardinal employees to subscribe set abouting non to unwrap information about the research that they are working on to other people. Some companies require employees to subscribe set abouting non to fall in a rival within a specified period, such as six months, in instance they resign from the company. These steps are taken so as to protect the companies ‘ trade secrets.2.2.3 HallmarksHallmarks are commercial beginning indexs, typical marks capable of separating the goods or services that are produced or provided by a specific individual or endeavor. Such marks, including personal names, letters, numbers, nonliteral elements and combinations of colors every bit good as any combination of such marks, shall be eligible for enrollment as hallmarks. Hallmarks are for merchandises in selling. It is a mark for forestalling confusion of selling merchandises.2.2.4 Industrial Design RightIndustrial design right protects the signifier of visual aspect, manner or design of an object. Copyright includes novels, verse forms, dramas, movies, music, art work. When an industrial design is protected, the proprietor that is the individual or entity that has registered the design is assured an sole right against unauthorised copying or imitation of the design by 3rd parties. This helps to guarantee a just return on investing. Protecting industrial designs helps economic development, by promoting creativeness in the industrial and fabrication sectors, every bit good as in traditional humanistic disciplines and trades. They contribute to the enlargement of commercial activities and the export of national merchandises.2.3 CopyrightCopyright protects merely the signifiers of looks of the thought non the thoughts themselves. For illustration agreements of words, musical notes, colourss and forms of work are protected. The continuance of copyright exists during the being of right of first pu blication proprietor. It begins from the minute when the work is created and continues some clip after the proprietor ‘s decease. The ownership of copyright belongs to the individual who created the work.2.3.1 Copyright and IPRCopyright and IPR are considered to be an of import portion of modern life. Technological alteration means that IPR are going more and more important. Copyright notices should look on all plants for which protection is sought. Intellectual belongings should be decently dealt with, within all contracts and where appropriate confidentiality understandings should be used, for illustration to protect person ‘s â€Å" cognition † or innovations during dialogues from being exploited for fiscal or other addition. Copyright is an highly relevant right for the information engineering sector. It could about hold been designed with computing machines and the Internet in head. Copyright is the right of the conceiver of a literary, dramatic, artistic or musical work to command the reproduction and publication or public presentation of the work. Equally far as the Internet is concerned, copyright protects most stuffs on the Internet. It protects computing machine package and its beginning codification, screen shows and other literary, musical and artistic plants on the Internet.2.4 Brief overview on WIPOThe World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is a specialised bureau of the United Nations. Established in 1970, the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is an international organisation dedicated to assisting to guarantee that the rights of Godheads and proprietors of rational belongings are protected worldwide and that discoverers and writers are therefore recognized and rewarded for their inventiveness. This international protection acts as a goad to human creativeness, forcing frontward the boundaries of scientific discipline and engineering and enriching the universe of literature and the humanistic disciplines.How does WIPO advance the protection of rational belongings?As portion of the United Nati ons, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to make and harmonise regulations and patterns to protect rational belongings rights. Most industrialised states have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and underdeveloped states, nevertheless, are now constructing up their patent, hallmark, and copyright Torahs and systems. With the rapid globalisation of trade during the last decennary, WIPO plays a cardinal function in assisting these new systems evolve through pact dialogue, legal and proficient aid, and preparation in assorted signifiers, including in the country of enforcement of rational belongings rights. WIPO besides provides planetary enrollment systems – for patents, hallmarks, and industrial designs which are under regular reappraisal by Member States and other stakeholders to find how they can break function the demands of users and possible users. WIPO works with its Member States to demystify rational belongings from the grass-roots degree through the concern sector to policy shapers to guarantee that its benefits are good known, decently understood, and accessible to all.Chapter 3Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights( TRIPS )3.1 IntroductionTRIPS is an international understanding administered by the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) that sets down minimal criterions for many signifiers of rational belongings ( IP ) ordinance as applied to subjects of other WTO Members. It was negotiated at the terminal of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) in 1994. The TRIPS understanding introduced rational belongings jurisprudence into the international trading system for the first clip and remains the most comprehensive international understanding on rational belongings to day of the month. In 2001, developing states, concerned that developed states were take a firm standing on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a unit of ammunition of negotiations that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the range of TRIPS. After the Uruguay unit of ammunition, the GATT became the footing for the constitution of the World Trade Organization. Because confirmation of TRIPS is a mandatory demand of World Trade Organization rank, any state seeking to obtain easy entree to the legion international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must ordain the rigorous rational belongings Torahs mandated by TRIPS. For this ground, TRIPS is the most of import many-sided instrument for the globalisation of rational belongings Torahs. Many surveies have analyzed the impact of TRIPS on both the developed and developing states based on two attacks, foremost from the historical/empirical position, including the application of statistical/econometric techniques, and 2nd from a theoretical position, chiefly game theory.The pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows across statesFrom the historical/empirical position, research workers have already investigated at length the impact of TRIPS on assorted economic systems. These surveies normally focus on pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS informations on foreign direct investing forms, royalty and licensing payment flows, and so on. For illustration, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) reappraisal IMF informations crossing from 1992 to 2003 in selected European Union and APEC states ( as shown in Figure 1 ) . Figure 1: Pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows Beginning: Adapted from IMF Balance of Payments Statistics ( 2004 ) ; La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) Their analysis shows that for the USA, France, the UK, and Japan, there are post-TRIP additions in the influx of net royalties and licence transportations, while many other states have experienced increased escapes. Lai ( 2008 ) reaches similar decisions by demoing the biggest victors ( USA, Germany, France ) and biggest also-rans ( Canada, Brazil ) from TRIPS enforcement and patent harmonisation across take parting states under the TRIPS understanding. Therefore, in footings of net royalties and licence transportations, merely a few developed states benefit from TRIPS while most of the developing states suffer from TRIPS.Knowledge/technology transportations and IPRsAnother of import issue is whether a stronger domestic IPR protection can pull more foreign technology/knowledge transportations into the underdeveloped states. Maskus ( 2000 ) concludes that foreign direct investings ( FDIs ) and engineering transportation may increase when patent rights are strengthened. But the positiv e impact of stronger IPR protection depends on the competitory nature of the economic system. Similarly, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) point out that †the effectivity of stronger IPRs in exciting growing depends on the capableness of the domestic economic system to implement the IPRs and to absorb foreign direct investing and foreign engineering expeditiously. † Hence, a stronger IPR government may increase the cognition influx, but a stronger IPR criterion is non a satisfactory status. Knowledge transportations from foreign states depend on sufficient conditions, such as an equal substructure of the domestic economic system, high labour productivity/wage rate ratio, unfastened trade policy, advanced capacity, market size, GDP per capita, political stableness, and so on. If most or all of the necessary conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR protection is likely to pull more FDI or engineering licensing which transportations knowledge and/or gives the domestic state a better opportunity to tap into the planetary stock of cognition. However, if few or none of the conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR government entirely will non do any important difference in increasing the cognition flow into the state. The being of the other ( sufficient ) conditions is one of the grounds why the four †East Asiatic Tigers † and China received a batch of FDIs while their IPR governments were weak, and why some other states can non pull more foreign investing even aft er they strengthen their IPR criterions.3.2 Execution in developing statesWhen developing states join the planetary administration, they are bound with rational belongings right understanding. They are coerced into an understanding, which transfer million of dollars worth of monopoly net incomes from hapless states to wealth states under the belongings right jurisprudence. The understanding related to rational belongingss such as trade-related rational belongings rights ( TRIPS ) , TRIMs utilizing planetary administration GATT, have been set up. However, all these understandings is far from favorable for developing words as it merely represented the most strongest and competitory MNC ‘s and industrialized states. In TRIPS, for case, belongings right understanding in computing machine package, pharmaceuticals merely to protect industrialized states based houses, which have comparative advantage in these merchandises ( Stubbs and Geoffrey 2000, p.174-5 ) . The costs of implement ing the TRIPS Agreement to developing states are really high. Mexico spent over US $ 30 million upgrading rational belongings Torahs and enforcement ( Finger and Schuler 1999 ) . In bilateral trade dialogues, US force per unit area led states like Nigeria, Uganda, Morocco and Cambodia to implement patent protection governments for pharmaceuticals which are more restrictive than those required under TRIPS and are therefore known as TRIPS Plus. Intellectual belongings right under TRIPS is besides applied really loosely to let patent rights over single works cistrons, seed and their features and WTO members must protect works assortments either through patents ( WIPO ) . Up to now agricultural biotechnology MNC ‘s have filed 1000s of patents on works assortments, seeds. This would connote the remotion of husbandmans ‘ rights in developing states over workss, seeds and progressively easy for MNC ‘s which ain patent to implement their rational belongings rights in developing states. For illustration husbandmans in Nalgonda territory of Andhra Pradesh in India paid up to 1,600 rupees for a 450-gram package of Bt cotton seeds own by MNC ‘s, ( of which the royalty constituent was 1,200 rupees ) , as against 450-500 rupees for normal assortments. Despite the costs, Bt cotton outputs have sometimes been lower than those of local assortments ( The Hindu, India ‘s National intelligence paper, 2003 ) .Dut ch east indiesIn Indonesia, there are besides rather a few grounds have shown how the planetary regulation implemented in TRIPS and TRIMS is working chiefly to protect the involvement of industrialized states and MNC ‘s instead so developing states. Owing to international force per unit area, Indonesian authorities has to hold to legion international conventions on rational belongings right. These include the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Trademark Law Treaty, the Nice Agreement for the International Classification of Unclassified Goods and Services, and the Strasbourg Agreement Concerning International Patent Classification. Since so Indonesia need to sporadically escalate actions against copyright buccaneering or will be criticized from planetary community. The new right of first publication jurisprudence in Indonesia came into force in July 2003. The jurisprudence contains a figure of of import commissariats long sought by MNC ‘s operating in this state including proviso for the issue of an implementing ordinance on optical discs ( OD ) , condemnable punishments for end-user buccaneering and the ability of right holders to seek civil injunctions against plagiarists. The right of first publication jurisprudence establishes rights to licence, bring forth, rent or broadcast audiovisual, cinematographic, and computing machine package. Young graduates come ining a profession have get downing wages of around $ 80- $ 100 per month ( Richter and Pamela, 2004 ) . It is, hence, unrealistic to anticipate the state like this to be able to use strong moralss such as TRIPS where the support of the general population is still hapless. If copyright jurisprudence is really purely applied and the pupils are required to purchase a book that will be more so their life disbursal for a month, ( like some foreign text editions are ) at that place will non many of them could attempt to hold it. This state of affairs will besides do the future coevals of developing states be denied from the newest engineering and cognition. Under the inducements created by the planetary system of patenting, right of first publication and rational belongings right protection, the planetary participant in pharmaceutical industries will be more interesting in bring forthing medical specialty for the rich instead so the hapless.3.3 Benefits from allowing monopoly rightsThere are four sorts of benefits from allowing monopoly rights to pioneers. Each is capable to makings every bit far as developing states are concerned.The stimulation of private inventionThe importance of this benefit rises with the gait of proficient alteration as at present and with the ‘imitability ‘ of new engineering, peculiarly in such activities as package. It besides grows with globalization, which leads pioneers ( in peculiar big multinational companies ) to pitch their R & A ; D to universe instead than national markets. However, where the state in inquiry has little or no local advanced capablenesss, the strengthening of IPRs does non excite domestic invention. The extent to which it stimulates planetary R & A ; D depends on its portion of the market for peculiar advanced activities and its ability to pay for expensive new merchandises. Where the economic system undertakes technological activity of an absorbent and adaptative sort, the great ma jority of informal and R & A ; D attempt in freshly industrializing states, stronger IPRs may hold no consequence in exciting it. On the contrary, to the extent that such attempt involves copying and change by reversal technology inventions elsewhere, it can compress a critical beginning of acquisition, capableness edifice and fight.The usage of the new cognition in productive activityWithout such usage, of class, there can be no fiscal wages to pioneers in footings of higher monetary values and net incomes, it leads to higher incomes, employment, fight and so on for the economic system as a whole. If the cognition is non exploited within the economic system, and its merchandises are provided at higher monetary values than in with weak IPRs, the additions are correspondingly less and the costs correspondingly higher. There may still be additions, if invention is stimulated by the being of that state ‘s market and the new merchandises represent a existent addition in consumer p ublic assistance. This addition has to be set against non merely the higher monetary values induced by IPRs but besides against decreases in local economic activity as a consequence of the monopoly and longer term growing potency.The airing of new cognition to other agentsStricter IPRs may ease the transportation of engineering across national boundary lines every bit good as addition local diffusion by supplying an enforceable legal model. This is likely to be of particular significance for technology-intensive merchandises and activities, where pioneers are antipathetic to selling engineering to states with weak IPRs, where escape is a existent possibility ( Cantwell and Andersen, 1996 ) . The economic benefit in a underdeveloped state depends on the presence of local agents capable of buying, absorbing and deploying new engineerings, peculiarly complex high engineerings. If no such agents exist, rigorous IPRs offer no benefit for engineering transportation. If they exist, the siz e of the benefits depends on two things: the extent to which rigorous IPRs raise the cost of purchasing engineerings, and whether the options of copying and contrary technology would hold been executable, cheaper and more rewarding in constructing up local technological capablenesss.The stimulation of invention by other endeavorsThis is a really of import benefit of the IPR system, but clearly its value is chiefly to economic systems where there is intense advanced activity by big Numberss of viing endeavors. Innovation around a peculiar patent is one of the most dynamic beginnings of technological advancement. However, this is of small or no value to hapless and unindustrialized states that lack a local advanced base. These makings are, of class, acknowledged in the IPR literature.Chapter 4Intellectual Property and Foreign Direct Investment4.1 OverviewNormally, FDI is seen as cardinal determiners for economic development and poorness decrease in developing states. Inward FDI can tu rn out to be good to developing states, ensuing in the betterment in domestic advanced capacity, increased R & A ; D employment, better preparation and support to instruction. Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning scholarly literature on the relationship between IPRs and FDI influxs in developing states. From a theoretical point of view, the relationship between IPRs and FDI determinations is complex. The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states in their influence on FDI determinations.4.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesInvesting by houses can be more likely when host states have strong IP protection, as this reduces the hazards of imitation and leads to a comparatively larger net demand for protected merchandises ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Hence, IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI by enabling for eign houses to vie efficaciously with local houses that possess ownership advantages ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) .Stronger rational belongings rights can make location advantagesNot merely can IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI, but they can besides act upon where multinationals decide to turn up that investing. IPRs are defensive in nature and hence differ across national boundaries. Therefore, stronger IPRs in some underdeveloped states can be a location advantage that will positively impact multinationals ‘ determinations. On the contrary, developing states characterised by weak IPRs can be less attractive locations for foreign houses. However, in the context of TRIPS, it is sensible to believe that the tendency toward harmonization of IPRs within TRIPS would countervail such location advantages. In this sense, states with weaker protection can go more attractive as they strengthen their IPRs, and the comparative attraction of those with strong IPRs already in being can fall ( Maskus, 2004 ) .Stronger rational belongings rights can increase quality of foreign direct investingIPRs affect the composing of FDI. Strong protection may promote FDI in high engineering sectors, where such rights play an of import function. In add-on, it may switch the focal point of FDI undertakings from distribution to fabrication ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) .4.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStrengthening rational belongings rights can increase market powerStrong IPRs negatively influence FDI by supplying rights holders with increased market power. As a consequence, strong IPRs cause houses to deprive and cut down their service to foreign states. The market power consequence can cut down the snap of demand confronting the foreign house, bring oning them to put or bring forth less of its patentable merchandise in the host state. Stronger IPRs can let the pattern of higher monetary values by foreign houses because IPRs cut down competition among houses. Therefore, stronger monetary values can counterbalance for lower investing or production.Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage foreign direct investing by promoting LicensingStrong IPRs can besides do multinationals to exchange their preferable manner of bringing from foreign production and R & A ; D to licensing ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Ferrantino ( 1993 ) argues that houses prefer FDI over licencing when protection is weak, as houses are more able to keep direct control over their assets through internalised foreign production or inhouse foreign R & A ; D. In this instance, beef uping IPRs diminishes the inducement for FDI at the border for R & A ; D-intensive industries ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1997 ) .4.4 Evidence from the position of developing statesIntellectual belongings rights seem to impact positively on economic development throughforeign direct investingBranstetter et Al. ( 2007 ) supply empirical penetrations about the effects of increased FDI on industrial development. By utilizing firm-level panel informations on US transnational houses, they examined how those houses responded to a series of rational belongings reforms undertaken in 16 states in Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Middle East ( Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela ) . Their findings showed that US multinationals expanded the graduated table of their activities in states after these states implemented IPR reforms. The addition in usage of inputs in the host states was disproportionately higher among multinationals that made extended usage of IPRs. In add-on to it, industrial activity expanded overall after rights reform. This enlargement of transnational activity more than countervail any diminution in the imitative activity of local houses.Intellectual belongings rights positively affect outward foreign direct investingRefering outward FDI from developing states, Park and Lippoldt ( 2003 ) through empirical observation showed that that an addition in the strength of patent rights tended to significantly and positively impact the outward FDI of developing and least developed states. This implies these states could derive from the harmonization of IPRs ( Park and Lippoldt, 2003 ) .Chapter 5Intellectual Property and Trade5.1 OverviewFor most underdeveloped states, international trade allows them to get high value-added goods through importing that are necessary for economic development, but which are non produced domestically. In bend, exports allow developing states to tr ansform underutilized natural resources and surplus labour into foreign exchange, in order to pay for imports to back up economic growing. The undermentioned paragraphs briefly present the chief theoretical statements back uping and disputing the position that stronger IPRs addition and heighten international trade.5.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesStronger IPRs provide ownership advantages to houses functioning foreign markets by supplying legal resort against misdemeanor of their assets. Therefore, stronger IPRs expand the markets served by houses. Strong IPRs can besides increase bilateral exchange to foreign markets by cut downing the costs associated with preventing loss of cognition assets. Such costs consist of foregone grosss ensuing from reduced bilateral exchange and/or disbursals incurred to do cognition assets hard to copy ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 )International harmonization of ra tional belongings rights governments can cut down thedealing costs associated with tradeExporting houses in developed states face extra costs when exporting to developing states, when they must prosecute in activities designed to suppress local imitation. International harmonization of IPR governments can decrease the dealing costs of operating in different regulative environments. In this respect, it can stand for a location advantage for the participating states.5.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStrengthening rational belongings rights can increase market powerThe market power construct holds that strong rights cut down bilateral exchange by guaranting a impermanent monopoly over the protected cognition. This market power is attributed to the patent ( grant ) holder, whether domestic or foreign. Firms that secure strong patent protection in foreign markets can exert their market power by curtailing measure and increasing the unit monetary value of bilater al exchange to that market ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ; Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . Firms ‘ behavior depends on a assortment of conditions. For illustration, market power can be generated by comparatively modest strength of IPRs when markets are segmented, when few near replacements are available and proficient soaking up capacities are weak. Furthermore, strong IPRs can reenforce market cleavage and cut down the ability to replace merchandises. As a consequence, a negative relationship can emerge between the strength of IPRs and bilateral flows under market power conditions, particularly when proficient absorbent capacities are weak ( Smith, 2001 ) . Firms are likely to cut down the measure supplied and increase the protected merchandises ‘ monetary values.Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage trade and promote licensingA farther beginning of uncertainness stems from the fact that differing degrees of IPRs can impact a house ‘s determination abou t its preferable manner of functioning a foreign market. In an environment characterised by strong rights, a house may take to function a foreign market by FDI, or by licencing its rational assets instead than through direct export. In this regard, beef uping rational belongings protection can hold negative effects on trade flows ( Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) .5.4 Evidence from the position of developing statesThe empirical literature is about whether increased imports from developed states affect economic development and whether harmonization of IPRs has affected their export behavior. However, even within these countries, the empirical grounds from the position of developing states is instead limited, particularly sing the affect of imports from developed states on economic development.International harmonization of rational belongings rights may promote exports from emerging industrialized statesLiu and Lin ( 2005 ) carried out a back-to-back pooled informations analysis from 1989 to 2000 in order to look into the relationship between IPRs and the exports of three hi-tech industries in Taiwan: semiconducting material, information and communicating equipment. Their empirical consequences showed that betterment in IPRs had a positive impact on Taiwan ‘s exports if the importing state had a stronger R & A ; D ability than Taiwan. Furthermore, Liu and Lin found that when an importing state exhibited a strong menace of imitation, the betterment in IPRs in that state increased Taiwan ‘s exports through the market enlargement consequence. These consequences were corroborated farther by Yang and Huang ( 2009 ) .Harmonization has non increased exports from other developing statesSmith et Al. ( 2009 ) explore d whether TRIPS generated additions for developing states in the signifier of increased pharmaceutical exports. They found that TRIPS had non generated significant additions for developing states, but alternatively increased pharmaceutical trade in developed states.Chapter 6Intellectual Property and Innovation6.1 OverviewOver the past two decennaries, there has been a turning academic literature look intoing the relationship between IPRs and invention. This relationship can be examined through the impact of IPRs on domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) and IPRs ‘ impact on engineering transportation ( i.e. engineering soaking up and diffusion ) . The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states, to act upon engineering transportation from developed states and domestic invention.6.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rightsIntellectual belongings rights can supply inducements for houses to put in R & A ; DFirms do non hold the right inducements to put in R & A ; D and invention if the benefits of such investing accrue to their rivals. This is the traditional statement about private under-investment in R & A ; D due to market failure ( Foray, 2009 ) . The production of new merchandises and procedures generates new cognition. New cognition carries considerable economic value, but it has characteristics that make it debatable for the market system to manage decently. Knowledge is seen as a public good, and public goods have two basic properties. First, they are non-rival in ingestion and 2nd, they are ‘non-excludable ‘ . Without IPRs, a free market economic system can neglect to bring on an optimum investing in R & A ; D and invention, since investors would non be able to reimburse the full benefit from their investing. Stronger IPRs can give greater inducements to houses to put in R & A ; D.Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantagesStronger IPRs give strong ownership advantages to houses in developed states, which can promote them to reassign their engineering to developing states through market channels: trade, FDI and licensin g.Stronger rational belongings rights can cut down asymmetric information in engineering transportationIPRs can significantly cut down asymmetric information jobs in undertaking for international engineering transportation ( Arora, 1995 ) .The proprietor of a engineering may hold complete cognition about its specifications, its effectivity when deployed under different fortunes, associated know-how and the similar, while the purchaser has far less information about it. Therefore, the purchaser would be unwilling to offer a monetary value that would cover all of these claimed benefits before they are certain that such information is right. However, the marketer could be unwilling to uncover the information without a contract in topographic point at an acceptable monetary value: to make so could change the negotiating footings in his disfavor at best, and instantly make a rival based on the revealed cognition at worst. Stronger IPRs can let the decrease of asymmetric information in un dertaking for engineering transportation.6.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rightsStronger rational belongings rights can increase market powerStronger IPRs are likely to raise the costs of engineering transportation, since they increase discoverers ‘ market power. Inventors can be expected to sell engineerings at a monetary value higher than fringy cost, which is socially less than optimal for the recipient state, at least in a inactive sense.Strengthening rational belongings rights can be deficient to cut down the asymmetric information jobThe statement developed by Arora ( 1995 ) is based on the transactional troubles created by the fact that statute information and tacit cognition are complementary and must be transferred together. However, this statement overlooks a job sing the receiver state ‘s legal and proficient capacities, it needs highly-skilled people who are able to cover with complex contract dialogues ( Foray, 2009 ) .Intellectual belongings rights systems can promote diffusion of free proficient informationIt is utile to remember that patent systems do non needfully impede the diffusion of proficient information. Rather, patent systems can even excite the diffusion of proficient information, since the discoverer must publically unwrap the proficient inside informations of the new technological cognition in exchange for patent rights. Technical description is an indispensable act. It is intended to supply sufficient ‘instructions ‘ for a specializer in that peculiar field, so as to be able to reproduce the innovation and better it. Strong IPRs may compel investors to unwrap their innovations to the full. In this sense, the patent system can bring forth a immense depository of proficient information in any technological country which can b e freely used by anyone looking for information about a given engineering ( Foray, 2009 ) .Weak rational belongings rights can promote international engineering transportationthrough non-market channelsInternational engineering transportation frequently occurs through non-market channels: nonvoluntary airing via copying and contrary technology. During the period of weak IPRs in developing states, copying was surely a major channel for international engineering transportation, in peculiar in the newly-industrialised states. Historical instances show that several developed states have used weak IPRs to hike the development of their industries ( Foray, 2009 ) . One can reason that it is plausible that IPRs may hinder such engineering transportation while beef uping ‘market-based ‘ channels, i.e. engineering transportation through trade, foreign direct investing and licensing6.4 The empirical groundsThe empirical literature on the impact of IPRs and invention in a North-South context has increased significantly throughout the 1990s and 2000s. The empirical grounds can be divided into two chief organic structures of work, foremost analyzing the effects of IPRs on international engineering and secondly look intoing how IPRs can impact on domestic invention in developing states.6.4.1 Evidence on international engineering transportationIntellectual belongings rights tend to impact positively on licensingThe majority of the empirical literature on the impact of IPRs on international engineering transportation has focused on the market-based signifiers of engineering transportation: trade, FDI and licensing. Yang and Maskus ( 2001 ) regressed the existent volume of license fees for industrial procedures paid by unaffiliated foreign houses to US houses in 23 developed and developing states in the 1980s and 19 90s on the Ginarte-Park index ( Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, UK and Venezuela ) . They discovered that stronger patent rights pull larger arm's-length volumes of accredited engineering, and that a 1 per cent rise in the index would increase licencing volumes by 2.3 per cent on norm. Smith ( 2001 ) relates US export, gross revenues of foreign affiliates and licensing fees to the Ginarte- Park patent index in several developed and developing states. In peculiar, Smith finds important grounds that stronger IPRs addition licensing payments on norm, at least for states with strong imitative abilities. Using the firm-data from Nipponese multinationals, Ito and Wakasugi ( 2007 ) found that stronger enforcement of IPRs accelerates the intra-firm engineering transportation measured by royalty payments from the affiliate to its parent houses.Intellectual belongings rights affect the channels of engineering transportationWhen analyzing the effects of I PRs on engineering transportation, it is of import to see the manners of bringing of engineering transportation through the different market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. The determinations among the different channels of engineering transportation depend on the strength of IPRs and ownership advantage ( Smith, 2001 ) . These determinations concern whether or non to reassign production, and therefore cognition, outside the beginning state and/or the beginning house. Firms prosecuting in exports hold their cognition inside both the beginning state and house. Firms that set up affiliates abroad transfer cognition outside the beginning state, but hold knowledge assets inside the beginning house. Firms that license their cognition assets to unaffiliated foreign houses transfer cognition outside both the beginning state and house. Smith ( 2001 ) finds that strong IPRs have a larger consequence on US cognition transferred outside the state and house, comparative to knowledge located inside the state and internalised in the house. In order words, strong IPRs spring inducements to houses in developed states to licence their engineerings to other houses in developing states, since the former will be able to command better the cognition transferred.6.4.2 Evidence on domestic inventionAlthough there are many empirical surveies on the relationship between IPRs and domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) in developed states, the empirical literature on developing states is much more limited.Stronger rational belongings rights seem to promote invention in emerging industrialized economic systemsUsing panel informations for 64 developing states over the period 1975-2000, Chen and Puttitanun ( 2005 ) showed the positive impact of IPRs on inventions in developi ng states. Dutta and Sharma ( 2008 ) examined whether IPRs in India have increased invention by houses. Using panel informations on Indian houses from 1989 to 2005, they found strong grounds that Indian houses in more innovation-intensive industries increased their R & A ; D outgo after TRIPS. The estimated within-firm addition in one-year R & A ; D disbursement after TRIPS was on mean 20 per centum points higher in an industry with a one standard-deviation higher value of invention strength.Chapter 7Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge7.1 OverviewFamilial resources from workss, animate beings and microorganisms are common in developing states, amounting to 90 per cent of the universe ‘s familial resources. Communities and persons in developing states have exploited these familial resources through the coevalss. Their usage is embodied in what frequently is referred to as traditional cognition. Clear events affecting IP jurisprudence and tradition al cognition, every bit good as theoretical arguments, have informed the inquiries asked in empirical surveies ( Oguamanam, 2008 ) .7.2 Evidence from the position of developing statesUniform IP Torahs can non guarantee diverseness of entree and benefit-sharingFor developed states, the effectivity of steps to protect diverseness of cognition depends on favourable market conditions and on communities ‘ capablenesss to allow a degree of market power. This decision that protection of diverseness in invention and production depends on local capablenesss nowadayss specific concerns for developing states. Some surveies find that there are strong monetary value premiums for high-quality biological merchandises arising from developing states, such as java ( Grote, 2007 ; Tregear et al. , 2007 ) . Developing states host the bulk of familial resources but frequently lack the technological capacity and capital to develop these resources sustainably. Trommetter ( 2005 ) suggests, through m ention to historical instance surveies in pharmaceuticals and agribusiness, that developing states ‘ capacity to negociate, their bargaining power and perceptual experiences of their committedness to implement understandings impact the just benefit-sharing of familial resources among those in developed and developing states.Tailored IP Torahs may back up diverseness of entree and benefit-sharingCases where a clear deficiency of capableness in developing states to act upon invention processes correspond with a turning literature look intoing steps to supply for diverseness of engagement in cognition protection governments in developing states. This subdivision reviews the empirical literature in each of these countries in bend, underscoring the grounds for the effectivity of these different steps possible through IP jurisprudence to protect the diverseness of cognition related to familial resources in developing states.Chapter 8RecommendationsThere are theoretical statements de moing that beef uping IPRs can hold positive effects on FDI. Strong rights can make ownership advantages that allow houses to put abroad. They can besides stand for a location advantage, which can be used by developing states to pull new cross-border investing. Furthermore, stronger IPRs can supply inducements for multinationals to increase the quality of their investing dedicated to developing states. Strong IPRs can increase the market power of multinationals in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and to diminish their investing and gross revenues abroad. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down FDI to the benefit of licensing. Empirical grounds shows that stronger IPRs positively affect the volume of inward FDI in developing states, particularly those with strong proficient absorbent capablenesss. Additionally, they may act upon the composing of FDI by promoting investing in production and R & A ; D instead than in gross revenues and distribution. international harmonization of IPR governments may promote exports from emerging industrialized states. However, this harmonization does non look to hold increased exports from other developing states. Stronger IPRs in developing states may further international engineering transportation, at least to states with strong technological absorptive capablenesss. Stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to information dissymmetries in catching.Chapter 9DecisionThe argument for rational belongings rights execution in developing states provides the base for the limit among developed, developing and hapless or least developed states ( LDC ) . On one side, developing states views the TRIPS understandings, in association to rational belongings rights as an bullying for their present economic systems, which might finally increase the entree to technological merchandises by increasing their cost. Soon, there is a demand to set up a model on the base of TRIPS understanding which could let the unvarying execution of strong or comparatively better IPR governments in the underdeveloped economic systems. This study has examined the impact of beef uping IPRs in developing states in four chief countries – FDI, trade, invention and familial resources and traditional cognition through a reappraisal of the most recent scholarly and gray literature. The empirical findings from the study show that stronger IPRs seem to act upon the determinations of single houses in developed states by promoting them to export, put and reassign their engineerings through licensing in developing states, in peculiar those with strong proficient absorbent activities. By increasing market power, strong IPRs can increase the costs of international engineering transportation. Furthermore, well-structured IPRs can promote the airing of free proficient information in the economic system. Some theoretical statements suggest that stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to inf ormation dissymmetries in catching. As a conclusive note, beef uping IPRs can increase the market power of foreign houses in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and diminish their exports to developing states. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down trade to the benefit of licensing. Furthermore, there is empirical grounds proposing that IPRs can positively impact trade, at least with states with high proficient absorbent capablenesss. However, stronger IPRs have differential effects across industries.

Comparing Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Essay

In many works of literature, authors express their viewpoints on society and times in which they live. In the essay â€Å"Self Reliance† by Ralph Waldo Emerson, and the book Walden by Henry David Thoreau, the authors speak out against conformity and materialism in society. Both were romanticism authors during the 1800s. They focused on simplicity and individuality. Both writings can advise teenagers today on the importance of non-conformity and the value of rejecting materialism. In â€Å"Self Reliance†, Emerson discusses being one’s own person and not allowing society to mold someone like a piece of clay; â€Å"Trust thyself† are the exact words he used. Trusting oneself means it is okay to be different if one wants or chooses to be different. It means that one does not have to follow the â€Å"bad† crowd just because everyone else may be choosing to do so. One must know that if they have a good idea and if they believe in that idea–even if it is different from the norm of society–some people will follow. Emerson also says, â€Å"Whoso would be a man, must be a non-conformist. † This means that to be a true and real person, one must stand up for what they believe in and not allow themselves to be completely changed by society. One must not conform to ways that will cause them to be someone or something outside of their own desires. In the beginning of his writing, Emerson gives us a definition of what he believes defines genius: â€Å"To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men—that is genius. ’ This is his way of saying that every person should know that doing what one thinks is right is the best decision—for him/herself. Every educated person does not conform to society if they do not think that society is going in the right path. Emerson also says that people who have good ideas are misunderstood. In his statement, â€Å"To be great is to be misunderstood†, Emerson is saying that most people who had great ideas in history were misjudged because their ideas were not along with the norms of society’s ideas. Therefore, the societal conformists thought that their ideas were wrong. Emerson gives reasons as to why most people conform to society and try to be the same. He says, â€Å"The other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency†Ã¢â‚¬â€œmeaning that people might follow society because that is what they are used to doing. They are only doing what they saw happening when they were younger. Their parents and other adults probably did the same thing that most people do today—conform. Emerson disputes this reason in his statement by saying, â€Å"But why should you keep your head over your shoulder? Suppose you should contradict yourself; what then? It seems to be a rule of wisdom never to rely on your memory alone†. Relying on the past could be problematic when someone questions things since most were probably brought up a certain way and are used to doing things the same way, but never really knew a good reason why to conform. In â€Å"Walden†, Thoreau explains how having less material things can simply your life. He says, â€Å"Our inventions are wont to be pretty toys, which distract our attention from serious things† In saying this, he means to own your items and do not let them own you. Thoreau thinks that people have the desire to own things, thus, causing them to have to use all of their time working to own said things. Working all the time means that one can not do the things that one wants to, and that the items that one desires ends up owning them. Through this statement, Thoreau is basically saying that having all these things such as cell phones, iPods, laptops, and televisions are distracting people from the more important things in life such as family, health, and well-being. One of Thoreau’s famous quotes is, â€Å"Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity! † This means to make ones’ life as simple as possible. He thinks that the poor are the fortunate ones since they have the least to look after and worry about while the rich have so much to look after that they do not have time for themselves. Living a simple life enables one to be free of commitment and obligations. One only has to worry about one’s self. Both Emerson and Thoreau believe that following one’s own path in life is the best way to go. They believe that being oneself and having a simple life is the best life. Both lessons can be relevant in today’s society by looking at the rural areas that still exist in the United States. Some of these areas still follow the principle of a simple and non-materialistic life. Their lives are not filled with technology and other things that distract most people from life. Young people (myself included), can take away much from Emerson’s and Thoreau’s writings. I could focus on more important things in life rather than wasting lots of time on unnecessary technology such as Facebook and Twitter. We could use technology under moderation and make sure that those things do not take up more time than necessary in our lives.

Should all pupils have the same opportunities or do some merit or Essay

Should all pupils have the same opportunities or do some merit or deserve different opportunities - Essay Example This is in line with the notion that being satisfied fairly leads to satisfaction of the basic need. Aristotle in his Politics (1280a) argues that true justice is treating equals equally and unequal’s unequally with regard to the notable and relevant difference between these groups. What these means essentially is that if there is no exact difference between two persons, the two should be treated similarly. Concerning pupils and opportunities, there are many people who, in line with Aristotle’s statement observe that only the same pupils who harbor the same interests should be given admission in particular schools. On the other hand, other people suggest that schools should be open to all pupils regardless of their interests or abilities. Presently, many governments around the word are forming education policies that are geared towards comprehensive education. However, many more are establishing schools that admit only students with the same interests. In my view, there are two faces in all things and therefore, educators have to consider the specific needs of a child in educator. This paper presents an argument on why pupils deserve different opportunities and why equal pupils should be treated equally while unequal ones are treated unequally. My argument in this discussion are in line with Aristotles statement â€Å"true justice is treating equals equally, and unequals unequally with regard to the notable and relevant difference between them†. This means that giving children the same opportunities will be unjust course since they have different capabilities, interests and objectives. On the other hand, it would be considered justice to give these learners opportunities and chances that suit their interests, objectives, capabilities, and goals. Educators and guardians must understand that maintaining high expectations for the learning of children needs them to understand these children well, and focus upon

Letter of Interest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Letter of Interest - Essay Example My Case Study Project revolved around a woman with sickle cell anemia who exhibited deteriorated eating habits. Despite encountering challenges when handling patients, the spirit of ‘patients first’ kept me grounded throughout. It was with such motivation that I devotedly engaged nurses, doctors and his parents by constantly communicating with them in a bid to unveil his nutritional needs and enable him attain skills on how to contain his insatiable appetite so that he could significantly gain weight and eventually enhance his eating habits. I believe that this experience best serves to demonstrate how my education, persistence, passion, devotion and expertise have modeled me to be of assistance to others. Besides my dedicated work in the Dietetic Internship, I recently graduated from New York University; Steinhart School of Culture, Education, and Human Development’s, masters program in Nutrition. I attained my undergraduate degree from United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) in Dietetics and was more than fortunate during the four-year B.S. degree to clinch tremendous knowledge from my professors and colleagues. Moreover, during my undergraduate years, I interned in various clinical nutrition departments in different hospitals in Dubai and Sharjah under which I had experience with different cases and patients. I was selected by food and agriculture faculty as 2009 Chair of the student-governed association and assisted in tutoring students in DPD courses. Following my educational background and extensive hands-on work experience, I was modeled into a well-rounded clinician, who will be an asset to the diverse clinical setting of your

Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Education - Essay Example These days, students are treated with kid gloves in an effort to make them feel better about themselves and not harm their young psyche. However, by misleading students into believing that they can accomplish anything they want to and that simply trying is good enough, we are raising a generation of prideful students who think that they do not need to try harder to be better than the next guy in order to succeed in life. They have become a â€Å"prideful† generation without really having anything to take pride in. That is the argument of Thomas Benton in his article â€Å"the Seven Deadly Sins of Students†, and that is the main focus of this argumentative paper. I will also focus on how the Peter Thiel Fellowship helps to make matters worse for our prideful students because it encourages them to forgo the regular college route in exchange for instant gratification of their ideas. Peter Thiel, the man after whom the grant is named is described as; â€Å"... the Silicon Valley investor who believes more young people should be chasing breakthrough technologies instead of wasting their time and money in college. â€Å" (Miller, Claire â€Å"Drop Out , Start Up†). ... Out of this pride -- nurtured by the purveyors of unearned self-esteem, personal grievance, dumbed-down courses, and inflated grades (often in the guise of liberality) -- the opportunity to earn an education is squandered by prideful students who can make a potential heaven seem like hell. The students of today take pride in being able to â€Å"achieve† without really doing the work. Although there is some good to be said of positive encouragement, the fact that this type of encouragement has taken over the educational system leaves one wondering as to the direction that these students will actually have in their lives. After all, there is nothing worse than being rewarded for mediocrity. Let us also not forget that long known saying â€Å"A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.† It is that little knowledge that these students possess that people such as Peter Thiel exploit for all the wrong reasons. Thiel believes that students should not waste their time languishing in college and spending college money that their parents most likely do not have when they can actually be pursuing their dreams and working on turning it into a reality. That is the precise reason that he created the Thiel Fellowship Grant. He caters to the need for instant gratification of the prideful students, forgetting the fact that these are still young people barely out of their teens and without the proper training nor guidance to succeed in their adult endeavors in their current status. That ripening of their minds and ability to manage their lives and professional careers comes with the completion of a college degree. However, Claire Miller (Miller, Claire â€Å"Drop Out , Start Up†) explains that these kids do not understand what they

Global tourism has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past fifty years Essay

Global tourism has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past fifty years - Essay Example Tourism is a dynamic industry which enhances economic performance by generating valuable benefits, either in the form of infrastructural development or by creating positive publicity for individual destinations and countries. The social benefits offered by the tourism industry Global tourism industry has enjoyed tremendous growth over the past fifty years. This growth has contributed to the development of the society. The social benefits offered by the tourism industry are - The industry acts as a vital source of income as well as employment opportunities which are highly flexible. In the absence of this sector, the global GDP would be quite low and a major portion of the people in a society would be unemployed and live in poverty. Tourism industry has led to the development and improvement of the society. More than 50% of the people now live in cities globally and it is predicted that the percentage will rise to 75% by 2025. The tourism industry has helped to overcome the problem of cultural differences between people all over the world. Tourism industry has diversified the area of work culture and work practices. This has led to the rise in employment opportunities and has significantly reduced unemployment (â€Å"Travel and Tourism 2011† 5). Challenges faced by the Tourism Industry The Tourism Industry has faced a number of new challenges in its way of growth which reflects the structure of the industry. The challenges faced are- The industry had difficulty in achieving the target employment growth in mature markets due to the absence of proper human resource strategies which play a strong role in attracting and retaining employees. The period of 2000-2010 recorded a high growth in GDP as a result of the contribution of the tourism industry. But the growth was volatile with economic uncertainties, uneven, and was affected by terrorists’ attacks and epidemics. This affected the overall growth of GDP as the direct contribution of GDP in all the m arkets was not equal. As the tourism industry is in the verge of growth and development, it is facing more competition in field of capital investment from its global competitors. Terrorist attacks have led to the evolution of high concerns to the safety and security of the hosts. Technological advancement has increased the expectation of the customers. So, the tourism industry must be developed in connection to the technological developments so that it can be successfully meet the expectations and requirements of the changing consumers (â€Å"Economic Development Strategy Report† 29). Opportunities and Barriers to the further growth of the Tourism Industry in Nanaimo, Canada The opportunities to the further growth of the Tourism Industry in Nanaimo, Canada are- The Industry has developed several products, outdoor activities, recreational packages, sport tourism, and art and culture so as to attract the customers. This will provide the customers with a lively and variant exper ience. The Industry has introduced the provision of conducting different festivals and events, so as to meet the requirements and expectations of both the customers and its employees (Nanaimo Tourism, 4). The Industry is trying to

History of Security in the U.S Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

History of Security in the U.S - Term Paper Example One example of ancient private security forces was the security force hired by Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses the II in the 13th century. In the US, the roots of the private security forces and private security companies can be traced to the mid 19th century. During this time, Alan Pinkerton established a private detective agency called Pinkerton Agency and his company became the first investigative agency that had the capacity to function on a national level. In 1889, Brinks Incorporated was formed for purposes of protecting property and payrolls. In 1909, William J. Burns was formed as a private detective agency. This company became the investigative unit for the American Banking Association. The above-mentioned companies are referred to as the â€Å"Original Three†. Another security company formed during this time is the Wells Fargo. By 1914, the railroads had already obtained authority to come up with their own private security units that worked with full police powers (Dyonder, 2010). After this, the rate of growth of private security industry increased greatly. Currently, there are more than ten thousand private security firms in the US that earn the nation an annual revenue of more than $15 billion. It has also become such a good source of employment with those employed in private security firms outnumbering those employed as public security officers by far. Its rate of employment is also increasing than any other type of business in the US. Factors leading to the significant growth of private security   The World War II is one very influential factor in the development of private security in the US. During this time, thousands of military men who were trained in intelligence and law enforcement established private agencies to protect against sabotage and espionage. The Cold War also created the need for private or background security clearances and investigations. This provided civilian jobs for many people who were highly trained. Dyonder (2010) reve als that when war was raging in Europe, President Roosevelt passed an executive directive giving the US war department the authority to acquire and train private security personnel to guard against threat to the US industry. By the middle of the war, more than ten thousand factories in the US were patrolled and protected by private security firms. Industrialisation increased the need for private security in the US. The main reasons for this is that industrialisation triggered a great rise in crime rates leading to an epidemic of crimes. The rise in crimes was because of the increased rates of unemployment. Singh (2005) states that with this levels of unemployment and the possibility that crimes rates would rise because of the Great Depression, private security companies embedded themselves more into the security industry. Increased rates of urbanisation also encouraged the growth of private security in the US. The exodus of people to large cities led to increased poverty, violence a nd crimes in these cities. This led to a need for seeking additional and closer supervision of homes and other private property. Singh (2005) points out that the growth of private security and the utilisation of its personnel was also enhanced by the popularity gained by automobiles. Move toward professionalism

KIEU Eaasy-Theme 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

KIEU Eaasy-Theme 2 - Essay Example Although it may be assumed that the spirit behind Kieu’s decision to engage in immoral activities is ethical, the actions the she takes are immoral and against the standards set by the society. Kieu’s liberal personality is revealed when she decides to engage in prostitution in order to cater for the needs for her family. Kieu was well educated and had a bright future ahead, but problems befall her family. As a result, she takes the path of prostitution and becomes a victim of circumstances. According to her society, prostitution is immoral and an abuse of womanhood, but Kieu takes a bold step to engage in it in order to assist her brother and father. The spirit behind her decision to join prostitution in order to assist her family may be taken as a moral action, but in the real sense and based on her society’s norms, it is immoral (Du 151). Kieu falls in love with Kim. Both are teenagers but they follow their desires to develop a passionate relationship. The soc iety prohibits teenage relationship because they are likely to fall into temptation and engage in sexual intercourse. The society is against the relationship, but Kieu’s liberal personality enables her to fall in love with Kim, thus breaking the social norms set by her community. Although Kieu may be considered to be moral when she decided to preserve herself until marriage when her boyfriend Kim tried to make sexual advances to her, the whole relationship is immoral because it contravenes the basic moral codes that prohibit sexual relationships between teenagers (Du 118). Judging whether Kieu’s actions are moral or immoral depends on the society that one is coming from. Every society defines morality in its own context. Looking at Kieu’s character, it is somehow admirable because she loves her family more than herself and decides to practice prostitution in order to save them. If Kieu were a selfish individual, she would have agreed to get married to Kim and le ave her family to suffer. Therefore, in another context, her decisions are admirable and she can be considered to be a bright person. She chooses to assist her family, even though it meant going against social norms and beliefs. Nevertheless, her actions cannot be taken to be those of a hero because the path of prostitution is not a correct one and is not acceptable in any society. Prostitution is immoral and is taken to be lack of respect to oneself and the society at large. Kieu could have made other choices rather than prostitution. Many bright girls around the globe face similar circumstances in life, and prostitution to a morally upright person is immoral. Even though Kieu proved to be morally upright when Kim made sexual advances to her, she later proved to be a weak human being who uses family as a reason to practice prostitution. It is clear that her decision to practice prostitution could not be deterred by social norms and so she had to follow her liberal attitudes to do w hat fulfilled her desire and what she felt was good for her and her family (McLeod and Nguyen 69). Morals are ethics that determine whether the behavior of an individual is good or bad. Every society has its own way of expressing moral behavior and ethics. One may be faced by a situation where the moral behavior can be abandoned in order to save another from bigger problems. For instance, Kieu is forced to join the brothel and start practicing prostitution in a bid to save her father and

Victims and The Criminal Justice system of England and Wales Essay

Victims and The Criminal Justice system of England and Wales - Essay Example Also ‘Everyone has a right to follow a course of action that others judge to be unwise or eccentric, including one which may lead to them being abused ’according to the document ‘Safeguarding Adults’( page 21). routine activity theory, this being also known as either opportunity theory or exposure theory and is described by David Garson on his web page ‘Routine Activity Theory’ Garson believes that victimization is because of exposure to risks, by which he means that more people place themselves in positions of risk obviously the more they increase their chance of becoming victims. The problem with such theories is that they place the responsibility for lessening risk on the victim alone, rather than placing any stress on the motivation of criminals or the responsibilities of law enforcement officials. Also some factors are beyond the person’s ability to change – females are more likely to be victims as are the poor and those who are obviously different - whether because of their skin colour, mental incapacity or religious beliefs. The Sociology 4099 lecture page speaks about social structure being a factor, the poorer section of society being more likely to be victimized, but the causes are seen as both economic and concerned with power – money speaks and the murder of children for instance, especially females , is described as socio-structural victimization. Although the police and social services will often offer some initial support, simply because they may be the first people involved outside a victim’s family, the majority of support available in England and Wales comes from Victim Support, a government aided charity as described on the You Gov web page ‘Victim Support in England and Wales’. The group offer confidential support, advice and give practical help with such things as replacing locks or making repairs. They also offer a witness support role whereby they do such things as accompanying a victim to the court, showing

Philadelphia Snacks Breadsticks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Philadelphia Snacks Breadsticks - Essay Example Another ingredient, water is considered the most abundant and versatile substance on Earth. Water is used in a variety of ways in food preparation, processing, and preservation (Bender & Bender, 2005). Salt is also known as sodium chloride. It is the second most widely used food additive in the world. Salt is primarily used for food seasoning and preservation (Joachim, 2002). Locust bean gum is also called carob bean gum, is extracted from the seeds of the carob tree which grows in Mediterranean countries. It is used as a thickener and gelling agent for various food products. Locust bean gum works well with carrageenan and is usually combined with the latter (Khan & Abourashed 2010). The ingredient carrageenan is also called seaweed extract. It turns into a gel once dissolved in water and is commonly used in milk products (Tarte, 2008). Wheat flour is the flour obtained by grinding wheat kernels and recovering the ground endosperms after removing the bran and germ (Sertori, 2008). Ve getable fat is an edible fat composed of partially hydrogenated vegetable oil which contains no water (Smith & Hui, 2004). Wheat fiber is a dietary fiber sourced from wheat bran (Sertori, 2008). Meanwhile, barley malt extract is the sweetener derived from barley during the malting process (Roberts & Greenwood, 2011). Yeast is a leavening agent derived from the one-celled microorganism (International Commission on Microbiological Specification for Foods, 2005). Wheatgerm is extracted from wheat kernels and a source of fiber (Sertori, 2008).

Effects of H-1B Visa Program on Employment and Wage in the United States Essay Example for Free

Effects of H-1B Visa Program on Employment and Wage in the United States Essay The United States is the most powerful country in the world. Its dominant culture, military, and economy make it the most influential nation across the globe. The power of the US doesnt only come from its native citizens but also from the foreigners who come to its shores every day to work and live there. These people play a very significant role in driving the US economy. A number of national programs have been developed in order to influence the influx of these people into the US. One of those programs is called the H-1B visa program. The program, which allows foreigners to work in the US, has critical effects on various sectors of American society, but especially the economy. Based on the data that have been so far collected, it is clear that the H-1B visa program, in terms of employment in the technology sector, is important in maintaining the status of the country as a leader in science and technology. However, the H-1B visa program may also have negative effects on the wage of native citizens because they would have to compete with the low wages of foreign workers. Many companies in the US needed temporary workers, so the H1 category of non-immigrants was created under the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952. Unlike immigrants, non-immigrants only stay in the US temporarily to accomplish a specific purpose, for instance, education or work. The current H1-B visa program of the United States was created through the Immigration Act of 1990 and the amendment of the 1952 act. The result of the amendment was a program that allows an employer to temporarily hire a foreigner to work in the US provided that hes under the category of non-immigrants. Also, the worker must have a specialty occupation or be a fashion model with exceptional ability and merit. The law describes a â€Å"specialty occupation† as something that requires theoretical and practical application of a specialized body of knowledge. The worker must also have a bachelors degree or the equivalent in specialties such as business, biotechnology, education, health care, medicine, and sciences. The H1-B program currently limits the number of foreign nonimmigrant workers in the US to 65,000 per year (Bartik et al. 134). H-1Bs cap has not always remained the same, however. Congress increased it to 115,000 in 1998 for fiscal years 1999 and 2000. Then in 2000, Congress increased it even further to 195,000 for the 2001 fiscal year. It was maintained during 2002 and 2003, and was slashed to 65,000 again from 2004 onward. Not all foreign workers are affected by the cap, however. The H-1B Visa Reform Act of 2004 states that foreign workers employed by institutions of government research organizations, institutions of higher education and NGOs are exempt from the cap. Also, a separate cap of 20,000 exists on petitions that are filed on behalf of foreigners with masters or higher degrees earned in the US (Bartik et al. 135). Recently, lobbyists composed of universities and members of the technology industry are pushing for a huge increase in the annual cap of H-1B visas. They argue that H-1B visas otherwise known as â€Å"guest worker visas† serve a crucial role in driving the economy, especially in the high technology sector. According to them, there is a systemic shortage of American engineers and scientists in the country. There is a very high demand domestically for these highly skilled workers and the small supply cannot fill that gap. The only way to solve this problem therefore is through the import of foreign workers through the H-1B visa program (Hira et al. 150). These lobbyists argue that they will be forced to resort to outsourcing jobs to foreign engineers and scientists in their home countries if the H-1B cap is not increased. They also claim that the visa program actually serves as a tool for the country to gather the best and the brightest highly skilled workers in the world. This is supposedly a result that is to be expected if the cap on the H-1B visa program is increased (Hira et al. 150). There are many evidences for the advantages brought about by hiring foreign workers in the technology sector. For example, a 2008 study by the National Research Council looked at the effects of hiring H-1B workers by large US companies Texas Instruments, Qualcomm, Motorola/Freescale, Intel, and IBM. Of the five companies, IBM employed the most number of H-1B workers, granting almost 4,000 in five years. Most applications in the company stated a range of earnings of about $82,072. This was considerably bigger than the other four companies average minimum earnings. The researchers thought that the applications were for jobs that were not chip-related since IBM had become a software company from a hardware company (National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering 152). It is clear from the example above that foreign workers in the technology sector do indeed get attracted to the United States through H-1B visas. IBM was hiring more foreign workers than anybody else in the group, and these people were earning higher. However, there are still many â€Å"experts† that love to criticize the H-1B visa program. John McCain and Edward Kennedy defended the H-1B visa program in 2006. The two senators supported the immigration bill that passed the Senate and insisted that their bill required employers to search for workers in the US first. However, their bill actually didnt have any of these provisions (Hira et al. 152). Indeed, its a common misconception that the current law instructs US companies to look for workers in the US first. Many government officials also have this incorrect belief. Senator Norman Coleman, for example, says that he supports the issuance of H-1B visas as long as a number of conditions are met. One, the employer must show that there is not enough US workers qualified for the position; two, that the employer has not laid off a US worker 90 days before or after hiring a foreign worker; three, the employer must demonstrate that they tried to hire US workers before foreign workers; and finally, that the recruitment of H-1B workers will not have adverse effects on the waves, working conditions, and job opportunities of US workers. Even then Senator Barack Obama thinks that the H-1B policy aims to exhaust all means of recruiting US workers before foreign workers. He believed that hiring H1-B workers should be a last recourse for American employers (Hira et al. 152). The truth is however, that the provisions mentioned by the two people above actually dont exist for the majority of employers who use the H-1B visa program. Even Obamas wish that employers should hire foreign workers as a last option is not practiced in the real world (Hira et al. 152). Also, according to market indicators, there is not enough evidence of a systemic shortage of resident engineers and scientists in the US, one of the main arguments of lobbyists for the increase in H-1B cap. Also, earnings and wage growth have been moderate and more or less the same as other professions. The unemployment rate, while it sharply increased during the dot-com bubble, has now fallen. Researchers have also supported the idea that there is little evidence of shortage in high technology jobs. Private surveys and public data are also conflicting when it comes to determining shortages. Trade surveys show there are indeed shortages, but public data indicate the opposite (Bartik et al. 137). Determining shortages in scientists and engineers is a real problem because any increase in the number of H-1B visas issued by employers alone is not indicative of a systemic shortage. Other factors contribute to perceived shortages, for example, the growing significance of foreign students in American institutions. These are foreign students who remain in the United States after they graduate to convert their student visa to a working visa. Other equally important factors include: economic growth, cyclical demand in IT industries, especially during the 1990s, and even backlogs in the application process for permanent visa. Employers today are constantly hiring H-1B workers, but that is clearly not enough reason to increase the cap on H-1B visas. Aside from the effects it will have on the wages and earnings of American workers, the increased cap will create some problems in the permanent residency part of immigration because there are already backlogs there (Bartik et al. 137). The influx of H-1B workers into the United States has been going on vigorously since the 1990s. During that time, about 30 million people were able to stay in America through nonimmigrant admissions. The fastest growing nonimmigrant admissions fall under categories where a foreigner first applies as a temporary foreign worker or student. He then tries to find a US sponsor to able to obtain the immigrant visa. Between 1992 and 1998, the number of foreign students admitted into the country with F1 visas rose from 53% to 565,00. The number of trainers and temporary workers also increased from 128% to 372,000 during that period of time (OECD 35).

Local Agenda 21 Guidelines

Local Agenda 21 Guidelines The concept of Local Agenda 21 was first introduced in 1987 at a meeting of world leaders in Norway. During that meeting the participants agreed that the planet has to adopt policies of sustainable development in order to move forward. Officially the Local Agenda 21 was then introduced at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, organised by the United Nations where more than 100 countries and representatives of more than 10000 organizations agreed to work out local agendas for sustainable living. Each country represented was then advised to develop a LA21 plan with the agenda set by the community itself rather than by the central government. Since 1992, more than 6,400 municipalities in 113 countries have been working to accelerate the transition to sustainable, equitable and secure communities. In European Union thousands of Local Authorities have a Local Agenda 21 plan although in countries like Greece for example this initiative is not always under the name of Agenda 21. In the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 there was a review of the progress made in Local Agenda 21. The participants were pleased of the progress made but also pointed out new opportunities to adopt concrete steps and identify quantifiable targets for better implementing Agenda 21 as the best strategies are only as good as their implementation. The major results and announcements from the Johannesburg Summit regarding Local Agenda 21 and Energy were: Increasing energy accessibility Although energy services have been extended to new groups of consumers, there is still a significant number of residents in rural and remote areas still lack access to sufficient energy resources. Changing production and consumption patterns In a lot of countries there was an introduction of policies and programs for encouraging energy conservation and efficiency in various sectors. This had as a result to: Reduce the growth rate of energy consumption. Improve the efficiency of electric power plants, but also the distribution efficiencies and electricity transmission; Support for the preparation of energy audits, The creation of specialized national bodies of expertise in the energy area; and Dissemination for raising public awareness for energy savings and sustainable development. Promotion of renewable sources of energy progress has been achieved in promoting the use of renewable energy technologies. Introduction of cleaner fuels and technologies the last few decades there was a significant increase in the use of natural gas. There was also commercialisation of some new renewable energy. The use of combined-cycle electricity generation systems has also become more common in industries and the electric power sector. Energy and transport There was a great deal of new policies which have been applied throughout the developed and developing countries. For example in European Union there was a band on leaded gasoline. In developing countries like Egypt for example, there was an incentive program in Cairo that supported a switch to natural gas vehicles; The outcome of this initiative was to increase substantial the number of vehicles using natural gas and today there are more than 27000 such vehicles are already in use. Pilot projects to use fuel cells for buses are also under consideration in some parts of the region. Promotion of regional cooperation the 1990s witnessed noticeable progress in regional cooperation in the energy sector. This is manifest by the realisation of a regional electricity grid interconnection between countries in the European Union. Also, as European Union expanded to the East there are now even more opportunities for further cooperation between the old EU countries with the new comers. Finally and perhaps the most important announcement was the launch of Local Action 21 Local Action 21 builds upon the worldwide successes of Local Agenda 21 since Rio. Local Action 21 fills in Agenda 21 in regards the implementation of Agenda 21, it represents a move from Agenda to Action, from plan to practice. Energy In Agenda 21 Energy is a key issue on Agenda 21 as it recognises its importance for human productivity and development. As such, energy receives significant coverage within most of the chapters of Agenda 21. It addresses the importance and the relationship of energy use and sustainable development. In particular explains the importance of energy supply, demand, and suggests ways for the transition from unsustainable to sustainable approaches to energy management. For example in Chapter 4 it states the importance of changing consumption patterns and it gives suggestions of how economies can reduce the use of energy and harmful materials without compromising their growth. This can be achieved by greater efficiency in the use of energy and resources by choosing the right technology and resources to produce goods and services which otherwise would have required significant amounts of energy. Governments should cooperate by giving initiatives to industry to use energy and resources efficiently and with special attention to the environment. In chapter 6 Agenda 21 points out how badly the environment has been damaged as a result of past and present developments in consumption and production patterns and lifestyles in energy production and use of people in developed and developing world, but also because of industrys bad practices. This has as a result hundreds of millions of people to suffer of pollution related conditions. Therefore, in chapter 6 it is suggested to establish environmental health impact assessment procedures for the planning and development of new industries and energy facilities as well as promote the introduction of environmentally sound technologies within the industry and energy sectors. In chapter 7 of the Local Agenda 21 is clearly recognized that the promotion of sustainable energy and transportation is one of the best ways of achieving sustainability. It urges to increase the efforts of energy saving and promote renewable energy techniques and technologies. It calls to use energy efficient building materials and use an integrated approach to buildings as needed. This is important as the building sector today is one of the major user of energy and any energy saving made on this sector will contribute significantly to the reduction of energy use. Chapter 9 recognizes that the protection of the atmosphere is an essential element of sustainable development and as such energy generated air pollution should be reduced. Therefore, all the different energy sources should be used in ways that respect the atmosphere as well as the human health and the environment as a whole. To achieve this, cooperation between different partners is important in order to identify and develop economically viable and environmentally friendly energy sources for meeting the increasing energy needs (in particular for the developing countries). The above shows that energy development, efficiency and consumptions are one of the main issues of Agenda 21. Energy is well understood that is essential to both social improvement and economic development and contributes to better quality of life. In the last few decades has been realised that much of the worlds energy, is produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. According to recent scientific findings the need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances, will increasingly need to be based on the efficient use of energy (in terms of production, transmission, distribution and consumption), and on growing reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, such as new and renewable sources of energy. This means that all energy sources will need to be used in ways that respect the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a whole. At the moment there are significant constraints to increasing the environmentally sound energy supplies in developing world such as the world economic crisis. Agenda 21 Guidelines In order to overcome any barriers and help countries and people adopt to Local Agenda commitments, Agenda 21 sets up guidelines for activities that governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should follow. These are: Environmentally sound energy sources Cooperate in identifying and developing environmentally sound energy sources and economically viable to support the availability of increased energy supplies to promote sustainable development efforts, specially in developing countries; Environmental Impact assessments Promote the development at the national level of appropriate methodologies for making integrated energy, economic and environment policy decisions for sustainable development, through environmental impact assessments; Modernisation of old power stations Promote the research, development, transfer and use of superior energy-efficient practices and technologies, including endogenous technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the modernization and rehabilitation of power systems; Promotion of renewable energy technology Overcome any barriers found in the way of the development of renewable energy technology to promote the research, development, transfer and use of technologies and practices for renewable energy systems such as biomass energy technologies, wind energy, solar technologies hydro and others. Energy capacities Promote the development of institutional, planning, scientific and management capacities, in order to encourage policies which targets energy efficiency and environmental protection. Energy diagnosis of energy supply mixes Study current energy supply mixes in order to increase in an economically efficient manner, in developing and developed countries, the use of environmentally sound energy systems and overcome any barriers to their development and use. Evaluation and promotion of cost effective policies Improvement of energy efficiency by promoting cost-effective policies in accordance with national socio-economic development and environmental priorities of a country. Good planning and programme management Build capacity for programme management and energy planning in energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and promotion of new and renewable sources of energy; Establishment of standards Promote appropriate emission standards or recommendations and energy efficiency at the national level, aimed at the development and use of technologies that minimize undesirable impacts on the environment; Education awareness programs Encourage awareness-raising programs at the local, national and regional levels concerning how energy affects the environment and what can be done to minimise our environmental footprint by wise use of energy. Energy labelling Establish, in cooperation with the private sector, labelling programmes for products to inform consumers of energy consumption and benefits of choosing the most efficient products. In summary Agenda 21 and Local Action 21 as it was introduced in a later stage sets up some main objectives for the energy. The basic and most important objective is to reduce adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector. This can be done by promoting policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of environmentally sound and cost-effective energy systems, such as new and renewable ones, through less polluting and more efficient energy production, transmission, distribution and use. In order to meet this objective it should be understood the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and increasing energy consumption in developing countries. In particular it should be taken into consideration countries that are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries have serious difficulties in switchi ng to alternatives, but also countries that are highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change. In European Union, although there was a significant progress on the implementation of Agenda 21 there are still lots that need to be done. The policies and tools that have been used by the EU are numerous and it is not of the scope of this document to mention, therefore we mention just three key targets that has been set up by EU to be met by 2020, these are: Cut off at least 20% in greenhouse gas emissions from all primary energy sources compared to 1990 levels. 20% of energy consumption should come up by renewable sources and Achieve a 20% energy saving by 2020 in energy consumption through energy efficiency. The above targets could only be achieved if citizens act responsible on how they use energy by recognising that the way they choose to live has a direct impact to the environment.